Vilma Brodnik, The Slovene National Education Institute

Brief History of Slovenes between West and South-East

As part of western world

Early Middle Age

In the early middle age slavic population was composed from eastern, southern and western slavic tribes. On 550 first western slavic tribes settled in the area of Eastern Alps (later Slovenia) and a little bit later on 568 also southern slavic tribes settled mentioned area. In the early middle age the ancestors of Slovenes is called Alpine Slavics. They established two principalities called Caranthania with capital in Krnski grad – today St. Peter (in today austrian Carinthia) and Carniola with capital in Carnium – today Kranj (in today Slovenia). As slovene principality is also considered so called Spodnja Panonija with capital in Blatenski kostel. This principality was spread in today western Hungary and eastern Slovenia.

Slovenes became part of so called western european civilization (west or western world) on 743, when caranthania's prince (knez) Borut asked Bavarians for help against Avar's threat. Caranthanians and Bavarians together defeated Avarians but Bavarians imposed a vassal relationship on Caranthanians. Two years later on 745 both (Caranthaninas and Bavarians) became part of Frankish kingdom. In the same time in today Slovenia Frankish feudal system was spread and also christianity was accepted. After decay of Frankish kingdom area of today Slovenia became part of Holy Roman Empire (Germany).

Slovene historical lands and their nationally mixed structure

In high and late middle age slovene historical lands were formed.

This lands were:

- Carniola (Kranjska composed from Gorenjska (capital Kranj), Dolenjska (capital Novo mesto) and Notranjska (capital Postojna)), mostly inhabited with Slovenes and some Germans in Ljubljana, Kočevje and Bela peč. The capital was Ljubljana. Today this land is the center of slovene state, only the most western part with Bela peč is in Italy.

- Styria (Štajerska) and Carinthia (Koroška) - in both of them lived 70 % Germans and 30 % Slovenes. Today two parts of (german) Styria is in Austria with capital Graz and one (slovene) part in Slovenia with capital Maribor. Carinthia is nowadays in Austria, only the most eastern part is in Slovenia. In the south part of Carinthia (south from the river Drava) lives slovene national group.

- In land Goriška lived 70 % Slovenes and 30 % Italians. Today land is divided between Slovenia with capital Nova Gorica and Italy with capital Gorizia. In italian part of Goriška and in Beneška Slovenija (in Veneto) lives slovene national group.

- In Istra lived 70 Italians and 30 % Slovenes and others. Today land is divided between Italy with capital Triest, Slovenia with capital Koper and Croatia with capital Pula. Today in italian part of Istra lives slovene national group and in slovene part of Istra lives italian national group.

- The land called Prekmurje was under Hungarian monarchy which was independent till 1526 when became part of Holy Roman Empire too. Today this region is nationally mixed area in which live Slovenes and Hungarians. The same situation is in land Porabje in eastern Hungary in which also lives slovene national group.

At the end of the 18 th and at the beginning of the 19 th century Napoleon Bonaparte destroyed Holy Roman Empire (Germany) and in the same time the Austrian Empire was established. In 1867 it was divided on austrian part with czech, austrian and slovene lands and on hungarian part with Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia. This dualistic state was called Austro-Hungary. Domination had Germans in austrian and Hungarians in hungarian part. Today Slovenia was part of Austrian Empire till the end of world war one on 1918. So Slovenes were part of western world from 743 to 1918.

Cultural, social and political movements in Habsburg monarchy

Also all important cultural, social and political movements influenced on slovene history. In the 15 th and 16 th century Renaissance and Humanist thought influenced on architecture, sculpture, painting and music. At that time famous composer Jacobus Gallus Carniolus lived and composed choir music. Next even more important movement was lutheran reformation (Protestantism) with slovene well known lutheran reformer and priest Primož Trubar who in 1551 published first slovene books Catechism and Elemetary School Grammar of slovene language. He also for the first time used term Slovenes. In one of his texts he wrote »my dear Slovenes« (»lubi Slovenci«). In 1584 Bible was translated into slovene language by Jurij Dalmatin, slovene lutheran pricher. Lutheran movement created the basis of slovene national identity. With Counter-Reformation lutheran christianity was forbiden and only Catholic Church was alowed. On the social field at this time is important peasant uprising against feudal lords like in Germany, France, Russia ... They lasted almost 250 years until the great Tolmin Rebellion of 1713. In the 17 th and in 18 th century Baroque art influenced the slovene national character and imprinted its stamp also on the today slovene cultural landscape – on architecture, sculpture, painting and also on national (folks) costumes. In 18 th century Enlightenment influenced on the beginning of the slovene national movement. Reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. gave good foundations for development of economy, education system, new official state administration also in slovene lands. Important supporter of slovene national movement was Marko Pohlin who had contact with supporter of czech national movement Joseph Jungmann. Pohlin wrote grammar of slovene language. Other important supporters were poet and priest Valentin Vodnik and Anton Tomaž Linhart who wrote first history of Slovenes in german language. In 19 th century the Romanticism influenced on romantic poetry with the greatest slovene poet dr. France Prešeren (more about Prešeren you can find on web sites http://www.preseren.net also in english language). His poem Zdravljica (A Toast) is today slovene national anthem. At the end of 19 th and on the beginning of 20 th century art of fin the siècle style (Art Nouveau, Jugendstil) influenced on famous slovene architect Jože Plečnik – also today we can adore his buildings in Ljubljana and other parts of Slovenia, Prague (Hradčani) or in Vienna. After world war one the founder of Czechoslovakia and its first president Tomáš Masaryk also nominated Jože Plečnik for director of Hradčani so that Plečnik could start the great project of its renovation. Other imporatnt slovene architects were Maks Fabiani who was also professor in Vienna's university and Ivan Vurnik. Plečnik, Fabiani and Vurnik worked also in the inter-war period. The most famous writers Ivan Cankar and poets Dragotin Kette, Josip Murn and Oton Župančič from this period belonged to slovene »modernism« (vanguarde). In this period also slovene impressionist painters Rihard Jakopič, Matija Jama, Ivan Grohar and Matej Sternen created their famous paintings.

Till 1919 Slovenes didn't have their own university, so they had to study mostly in Graz, Vienna or Prague. At that time Tomáš Masaryk as professor in Prague Czech university had great influence on some slovenian students. We called this Masaryks followers also The Masarykians. They accepted the main Masaryk's political, philosophical and social ideas. They also informed Slovenes about Masaryk ideas especially after 1895 when Masaryk published his book »The Czech Question«. The Masarykians accepted Masaryk's criticism of the current political and cultural situation in Bohemia and demands for school reform, for socialization of politics and culture, for cooperation of all classes in politics and culture and his concept of »natural rights« of nations for their existence. They accepted also Masaryk's criticism of the classical division into liberal and clerical parties in which they found the causes for the problematic political, national and cultural situation in Slovenia at the end of 19 th and at the beginning of 20 th century. Because of the ideological differences this slovene intellectuals who studied in Prague later split into two groups. One joined to Yugoslav (Slovene) Social Democratic Party and the other group to liberal The National Progressive Party. The most influenced party in Slovenia till world war two was conservative The Slovene Folks Party, on the second and the third place were exchanging social democratic party and liberal party.

The United Slovenia

In the revolution year 1848 Slovenes got first national programme called United Slovenia which demanded union of slovene lands. Slovenes thought that they could easier realise this demands with cooperation with other south slavic nations – with Croats and Serbs. In such circumstances the Yugoslav idea apeared. This is idea of a union and relationship of Yugoslav nations. Yugoslav idea influenced on Yugoslav question, this is question of how to unite Yugoslav nations. The supporters of such ideas demanded cultural and political cooperation and unification of all Yugoslav nations, except Bulgarians after the balkan wars 1912/13.

The main reason why the Yugoslav idea and Yugoslav question were so strongly supported by Slovenes is that Vienna's government did not want to realise the ideas which were set out in the programme of United Slovenia. This led to the development of four different manifestos by slovenes politicians and political parties, all addressing the question of how to resolve the Yugoslav question. The first manifesto, written by the Slovene conservative party (Slovenska ljudska stranka – The Slovene Folks Party) and the liberal party (Narodno napredna stranka – The National Progressive Party), demanded a plan “trialism” to be implemented whereby the Austro – Hungarian monarchy would become the Austro – Hungarian – Yugoslav monarchy. The second manifesto was proposed by the so called Rebirth movement. Its supporters wanted an independent Yugoslav state without any Habsburg authority. The third manifesto, called the Tivoli Resolution, appeared in 1909 and demanded cultural unification of the Yugoslav nations within the Habsburg monarchy and the reorganisation of this monarchy into a confederation. The forth manifesto represneted in famous lecture, was written by one of Slovenia’s most famous writers, Ivan Cankar, and is entitled »Slovenes and Yugoslavs«. It was published in 1913. Ivan Cankar demanded a federation of the Yugoslav nations outside the Habsburg monarchy. What is especially interesting in his manifesto is the idea that Yugoslav nations are brothers in blood, cousins in terms of their languages but strangers in culture. This statement became extremely important during the period of the two Yugoslav states – the kingdom and the socialist republic.

Slovenes didn't succeed with their national demands till the end of Habsburg monarchy.

World War One

Between world war one italian imperialistic pressure (iredentism) threatened the existence of Slovenes, especially after the secret London Agreement between Italy and the Triple Entente in april 1915. In this Agreement Italy was promised a great deal of Habsburg monarchy including Goriška, part of Carniola (Kranjska), Istra, Trentino, South Tyrol, Dalmatia and 50 millions £. In may 1915 Italy attacted Austro-Hungarian monarchy, precisely slovene lands and Tyrol. On the river Soča begun the most bloody and the greatest battle ever happened in Slovenia. More about this Soča's front also in english language you can read on the web sites of our famous museum of world war one in Kobarid. The title is http://www.kobariski-muzej.si/ Museum in Kobarid also got award of Council of Europe for the year 1993, because as it was said in the explanation of award »it takes its visitors by their hearts and souls and conveys a message which cannot be disseminated to often and loud: war is insanity, crime, it only generates victims …«. In former Yugoslavia in history teaching Soča's front was pushed off and Thesaloniki's front with brave Serbs was advocated. Nowadays I and my teachers are preparing teaching material for teaching Soča's front. So we took fragments from diary of ordinary slovene soldier Albin Mlakar who wrote about all 12 offenzives, from diary of ordinary czech soldier Jan F. Triska (his diary about forgotten front of world war one is translated in slovene) and from book of ordinary italian soldier Michele Baratto (we translated fragments from his book La mia guerra, Ignorata dalla storia). We can analysis what ordinary soldiers thought about and how their thoughts were changing from the beginning to the end of war. Mlakar was very excited at the beginning but at the end he was sicked of because of all deaths of his comrades, in one fragment he also wrote how sad he was, because in one of bombarding also one of little bird (skylark) was killed. Especially in Mlakar diary students can also analysis how much this diary tells us about great war at all. He wrote about all 12 offenzives, about all different kind of weapons and he was very attentive observer. We also included fragments from diaries of general Svetozar Boroević de Bojna (»Soča's lion«), officer Erwin Rommel and officer Benito Mussolini who also fought on the Soča's front. Rommel broke through Soča's front near Kobarid in 12 th offenzive. Students can compare what ordinary soldiers Mlakar, Triska and Baratto or general Boroević and officers Rommel and Mussolini thought and wrote about. The life in the inner part of the country, for example in Ljubljana, we can analysis with fragmnet from my degree's research work (in Faculty of Arts) about supply of Ljubljana with nutrition between world war one. It was written on original resources and published in historical newspapers (Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino and Kronika). In Sočas' front fougt slovene, croat, serbian, hungarian, bosnian, czech and german slodier on one side and italian on the other. In 1917 came german army to help Austro-Hungarian. I should also stressed that slovene soldiers on this front fought for Slovenia and not for Austria because they knew for the content of London Agreement. The result of this front was that after war Italy got Goriška, part of Kranjska (part of Notranjska with Postojna) and Istra. So called Rapallo's border was formed between Kingdom SHS and Italy. From the occupied lands and because of fascist pressure about 100 000 Slovenes migrated into Kingdom SHS or to America.

I can say that London Agreement from 1915 influenced on slovene national character so much as Munich Agreement from 1938 on Czech.

As part of South-East Europe

First Yugoslavia

On 29 September 1918 State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs from former Habsburg monarchy was established with capital in Zagreb. This state was not international admited as independent state and therefore united on 1 December 1918 with Kingdom Serbia wich has already included kingdom Montenegro and Macedonia (so called Vardar part of Macedonia, which is today Former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia). There are also Pirin Macedonia (as part of today Bolgaria) and Egean Macedonia (as part of today Greece). This new state was called Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes with capital in Belgrade. The state was in 1929 renamed into Kingdom Yugoslavia. In this Kingdom Serbs had domination and only one yugoslav nation of three tribes was recognized. This so called three tribes of yugoslav nation were Serbs, Croats and Slovenes – other were not recognized even as tribe. Slovenia became one of province of the new state. In the 1920s was delivered into Ljubljanska and Mariborska oblast and from 1929 to the beginning of world war two into Dravska Banovina. Both constitutions legalized Yugloslav (serbian) centralism and unitarism. The only advantage was economic develepoment of Slovenia which became from economic middle developed country from Habsburg monarchy to the most economic developed country in the new state. The most famous slovene politician from this period was dr. Anton Korošec. We have also some good writers and poets in the inter-war period such as France Bevk, Ciril Kosmač, Srečko Kosovel, Slavko Grum or Prežihov Voranc. In 1919 we got slovene University in Ljubljana (today we have also university in Maribor and Koper), slovene National Museum, National Gallery, National Theater (in the building in which was german theater in Habsburg monarchy), Radio Ljubljana and Academy of Sciences and Arts.

World War Two

In the spring of 1941 Yugoslavia joined the Triple Pact. After that British organized a military coup in which regent Prince Pavel was removed. New king became Peter I. Karadžordžević. In april Hitler attacted Yugoslavia. Slovenia was totally cut off from the rest of Yugoslavia and divided among the three invaders. So Third Reich occupied Lower Styria (Spodnja Štajerska with Maribor) and Upper Carniola (Gorenjska). Hungary occupied Prekmurje and Italy occupied Lower Carniola (Dolenjska), part of Inner Carniola with Logatec (Notranjska) and Ljubljana (of course not in today extent, because northern (Šentvid) and eastern (Črnuče) part of today Ljubljana were under german occupation). Italian occupiers transformed Ljubljana into greatest concentration camp in Europe – whole city was enclosed with barbed wire. The main aim of all three occupiers was to destroy slovene nations. They abolished slovene education, administration and national organizations. German occupiers deported slovene intelligentsia especially teachers and priests and national-conscious population (about 14 000 people). They also racial classified the inhabitants from Gorenjska and Spodnja Štajerska, men were mobilized into german army (about 39 000 men). Some of slovene leaders retreated to London and joined yugoslav government, the rest of them bowed to italian occupation. From 1941 Liberation Front organized resistance against the occupiers. This Liberation Front had strong communist revolutionary leaning and claimed for itself the exclusive right to represent the nation during the war and after it and advocated communist federal Yugoslavia. The army of Liberation Front were Slovene partisans units as part of yugoslav partisans movement under command of marshal Josip Broz Tito. Slovenes who were against communists joined together in the Slovene Covenant, which advocated free united Slovenia in federal kingdom of Yugoslavia. They wanted to achieve this goals with passively waiting for an Anglo-American victory. Their army was from 1943 slovene Home Guard. Between slovene partisans and Home Guard which collaborated with Third Reich, civil war run. Therefore Western Alllies supported partisans who liberated Yugoslavia and Slovenia. Soviet Red Army liberated only part of eastern Yugoslavia and then left the yugoslav teritoy.

Second Yugoslavia

After world war two socialistic republic of Yugoslavia was established with authonomic republic Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia (with two authonomic lands: Kosovo and Vojvodina), Montenegro, Bosnia and Hercegovina and Macedonia. In both Yugoslavias were great differencies between nations and nationalities lived in this area – advantage in second Yugoslavia was that all nations were recognized as autonomous nations or nationalities. But politicaly Yugoslavia became totalitarian state with only one political party – Yugoslav Communist Party with Josip Broz as president of party, army and state. The collectivization of all means of production was accomplished, only small and medium farms and craft remained in private hands. German minority was expeled, Home Guard soldiers with members of their families, political and economical/class »enemies« were killed in after war mass killings (about 80 000 people of different nationally – and we still count them in the context of the project The Victims of world war two and because of it of The Institute for modern History in Ljubljana). But we should also admit that Slovenia in the after war period lived autonomous educational and cultural life and economically developed even faster then in first Yugoslavia till the 1970s. Slovene GDP and national income were far above average. After Informbiro conflict with Soviet Union in 1948 Yugoslavia emancipated and developed their own way of socialism. Main ideologist was Slovene Edvard Kardelj. In 1968 slovene »liberal« communist prime minister Stane Kavčič was enable to reconstruct the slovene economy by developing more modern industries such as electronics, banking, service activities and opening Slovenia to Western Europe with increasing links with it. At this time »konservative« communists Edvard Kardelj and Josip Broz were still to strong and Stane Kavčič was retired to soon.

Yugoslavia in 1980s

After death of Josip Broz Serbs tried to impose hegemony (Great Serbia hegemony) and economic crisis spread around the state. Slovenes and Croats proposed reorganisation of state – some kind of asymmetrical federation or even confederation as minimum but were refused many times. At the end of 1989 an opposition coalition called Demos was formed in Slovenia from several opposition parties. In april 1990 the democratically-held elections for the Slovene Parliament brougt a 55 % victory for the Demos. Prime minister became christian democrat Alojz Peterle and president of the state reformed communist Milan Kučan who was elected on direct election. The president of parliament became democrat dr. France Bučar.

Independence of Slovenia or »back to West«

Slovene Parliament adopted a law on a plebiscite by acclamation and fixed 23 December 1990 for its implementation. The outcome of plebiscite was clear: of the 89 % eligible voters who participated, 90 % voted for a free and independent Slovenia unless in the period of the next six months an acceptable agreement for yugoslav crisis will be reached. Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević first threatened to use force against all who were not ready to accept his solution of yugoslav crisis – he imposed serbian hegemony. In spite of negotiations the agreement was not reached and therefore on 25 June 1991 slovene parliament proclaimed independence and slovene government took control over slovene teritory. Former republican borders were modified into state borders. Federal government decided to take military measures against slovene »separatists« and on 25 July 1991 Slovene Ten Days War begun. It came to an end with a retreat of yugoslav army (JNA) from Slovenia.

New state was international recoginzed in 1992 – on 15 January 1992 member states of EU and some other european states recognized Slovenia as independent state. In 1993 Agreement on cooperation between Slovenia and EU was signed. That year Slovenia also became a full member of Council of Europe and The Office of Delegation of European Commission in Republic of Slovenia was opened in Ljubljana by European Commission. At the same time Slovenia entered into negotiation to reach an agreement as associated member of EU. In 1995 Europe Agreemnet on associated membership was signed and the application for full membership has been delivered simultaneously. Official negotiation for full membership started at the beginning of 1998. On 23 March 2003 89,64 % voters (at 60,44 % vote participation) participated in referendum and opt for joining the EU. Accession Treaty between EU and accessed countries was signed on 16 April 2003 and put in force on 1 May 2004.

If I try to evaluate both Yugoslavias I can mention that in both Yugoslavias we can talk about three different civilizations composed into Yugoslavia: western with Slovenes and Croats, eastern (orthodox) with Serbs, Montenegro and Macedonians (close to Russia and Greece) and Muslim especially in Bosnia and Hercegovina and in Kosovo and Metohija. National the Muslim inhabitants in Bosnia and Hercegovina belong to Serbs and Croats who converted into islam in 15 th and 16 th century when this area was under Osman Empire. The culture, mentality, values, understanding of human rights, importance of constitutions, economy, agriculture, understanding of importance and operation of state, relationships between men and women, tolerance, habits … are depended on this three civilizations. I think that in every day life the influence of former Yugoslavia on Slovenes are especially in food with čevapčiči, ražnjiči and burek. Tipical slovene dishes are potica (Walnut Potica) and sirovi štruklji (Cottage Cheese Štruklji). Both are sweets. Inhabitants from former yugoslav republic brought perhaps more relax relationships between people and also some tipical curses. In both Yugoslavias (like in Habsburg monarchy) existed not only animsoty, intolerance and hatred but also cooperation, understanding and readiness for compromise.

Instead of conclusion

Let's drink that every nation

Will live to see that bright day's birth

When 'neath the sun's rotation

Dissent is banished from the earth,

All will be

Kinkfolk free

With neighbours none in enmitiy.

(From dr. France Prešeren's poem A Toast, also today slovenes national anthem).

Literature

Dr. Janko Prunk: A Brief History of Slovenia. Historical Background of The Republic of Slovenia. Mihelač 1994.

Dr. Janko Prunk: A Brief History of Slovenia. 2nd revised ed. Grad 2000.

Dr. Janez Cvirn, Jure Gašparič: Kakor da bi bili rešeni največje more. In: Zgodovina v šoli, XIV/1-2, 2005.

Dr. Jože Pirjevec: Jugoslovanske vojne 1991-1999. In. Zgodovina v šoli, XIII/3-4, 2004.

Dr. Božo Repe: Slovenska osamosvojitev. In: Zgodovina v šoli, XIII/3-4, 2004.

Dr. Irena Gantar Godina: Masaryk in masarykovstvo pri Slovencih. Slovenska Matica 1987.

Albin Mlakar: Dnevnik: 1914-1918. Kobarid 1995.

Jan F. Triska: Pozabljena fronta prve svetovne vojne. Mohorjeva 2000. Also in english: The Great Wars Forgotten Front from 2000.

Michele Baratto: La mia guerra. Ignorata dalla storia. Editore Moro 1989.

Dr. Petra Svoljšak: Soča, Sveta reka. Nova revija 2003.

Ivan Matičič: Skozi plamene prve svetovne vojne. Borec 1966.

Vilma Brodnik: Preskrba Ljubljane med 1. svetovno vojno. In: Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino. 38/2, 1989, str. 281-323.

Vilma Brodnik: Dobrodelnost v Ljubljani med prvo svetovno vojno. Kronika, 38/1-2, 1990, str. 56-64.

Vilma Brodnik: Preskrba beguncev in vojnih ujetnikov v Ljubljani med prvo svetovno vojno. Kronika, 37/3, 1989, str. 226-230.

English Web Sites about Slovenia:

http://www.burger.si (Virtual Slovenia)

http://www.kobariski-muzej.si/ (Museum of world war one in Kobarid)

http://www.preseren.net (about slovene greatest poet dr. France Prešeren)

http://www.avseniki-sp.si/gb-main.html (about famous slovene folk music group Avseniki from Gorenjska)

http://www.siddharta.net (about today most popular slovene rock group)